Working Of Institutions Class 9 Notes

In this chapter, Working of Institutions, you will learn how the major political institutions in India such as the Parliament, Executive, and Judiciary function. These institutions play an important role in the decision-making process of our government. The notes explain how laws are made, how different levels of government share powers, and how accountability is maintained in a democracy.

Working of Institutions Class 9 Notes

How is a major policy decision taken?

A Government Order On August 13, 1990, the Government of India issued an order. It was called an Office Memorandum. This official memorandum was signed by a joint secretary in the Ministry of Personnel. The government decided that 27% of jobs in central government would be reserved for a new group called SEBC (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes). Before this there is only the reservation for:

Scheduled Castes (SC) – 15%
Scheduled Tribes (ST) – 7.5%

This order added the third group, SEBC, which is now called OBC (Other Backward Classes). This is a step from the government of India toward equality.

The Decision Makers

Who decided to issue this memorandum?

The real decision came from the top leaders in the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh led the decision-making. The Union Cabinet formally approved it. The president of India announced the government’s intention in Parliament. The Department of Personnel and Training prepared the final order.

What was the Mandal Commission?

The Mandal Commission was set up in 1979. The head of the Mandal Commission was B.P. Mandal, so it was called the Mandal Commission. In 1980 it was recommended 27% reservation in government jobs for SEBC. The decision caused huge debates and protests. The supporters of the Mandal Commission say that it will help to reduce caste-based inequality. The opponents said it would hurt merit-based opportunities and increase caste divisions.

Many people have filed cases in the court regarding the wrong decision of reservation. The supreme court heard all the cases together in Indira Sawhney vs Union of India, and in 1992 the court said that the reservation is valid, but rich or well-off people among backward classes should not get reservations. So, the new office memorandum was issued on 8 Sept 1993 to include this change.

Need for Political Institutions

What Are Institutions?

Institutions are systems and structures that help the government function. Institutions help countries run smoothly. For example,

The Prime Minister and the Cabinet are institutions that take all important policy decisions.
The civil servants, working together, are responsible for taking steps to implement the ministers’ decisions.

The Supreme Court is an institution where disputes between citizens and the government are finally settled.

Institutions divide work so everything does not depend on one person. They follow the rules, so decisions are fair and not based on personal wishes. They continue working even if the leaders change. They protect democracy by making sure no one misuses power.

Parliament

Parliament is a place where laws are made and the government is held accountable. In India parliament has two houses, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The Mandal Commission report was discussed in both Houses of Parliament, and an Office Memorandum announcing reservations for OBCs was issued by the executive (Cabinet). Here, Parliament played a critical background role:

The Mandal Commission was discussed in Parliament by the MPs.
The President of India mentioned this in his speech to Parliament.
The Prime Minister made a statement explaining the decision.
This shows that Parliament is the heart of the democracy. Even when decisions are taken by the Cabinet.

Why do we need a Parliament?

Parliament is the heart of the democracy. Parliament does 4 big jobs:

Makes Laws: Parliament helps to create new laws, change old laws or remove laws.
Controls the Government: In India if the Parliament supports it, then the government can make decisions.
Controls Money: Parliament can check how the money is spent.
Debates and Discussions: Parliament is the highest place to talk about public problems.

Two Houses of Parliament

The Indian Parliament has two houses: Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The President of India is also part of Parliament but not a member of either house. The differences between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are:

Feature	Lok Sabha	Rajya Sabha
Total Members	545	250
Who Elects Them?	Directly by the people	Indirectly by State Legislative Assemblies
Term Length	5 years	6 years (1/3 members retire every 2 years)
Can It Be Dissolved?	Yes, it can be dissolved	No, it is a permanent body

The Rajya Sabha is also called the “Upper House”; the Lok Sabha is more powerful in most matters. Here’s why:

Both Houses must pass a law; if they disagree, a joint session is held. Here the Lok Sabha usually wins because it has more members.
Budget and money bills are passed only by Lok Sabha.
The Prime Minister must have the support of the Lok Sabha, and if the Lok Sabha passes a no-confidence motion, the government must resign.

Political Executive

The person who carries out government policies is known as the executive. The executive is the part of the government that implements laws and policies. Executives make day-to-day decisions but don’t hold supreme power. For example, the Prime Minister of India, the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, the Union Minister of Education, etc.

Political and Permanent Executive

There are two types of political executive: the executive and the permanent executive.

Political Executive – Elected by the people for a limited time (e.g., ministers, prime minister).
Permanent Executive – Appointed for long-term service (e.g., IAS officers, civil servants).

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

The Prime Minister is the most important political leader. The prime minister is not directly elected by the people. Appointed by the President, but only as leader of the majority party or coalition in Lok Sabha. The Council of Ministers is a group of ministers who help the PM to run the government. Cabinet meetings are held to make major decisions.

The President

The President is not elected directly by the people. The elected Members of Parliament (MPs) and the elected Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) elect her. A candidate standing for the president’s post has to get a majority of votes to win the election. All major appointments are made in the name of the President.

These include the appointment of the Chief Justice of India, the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts of the states, the governors of the states, the election commissioners, ambassadors to other countries, etc. All international treaties and agreements are made in the name of the President. The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India.

The Judiciary

The judiciary is an important part of democracy. It ensures that laws are followed in the right way, protects the rights, and makes government actions fair. A powerful and independent judiciary is necessary to prevent misuse of power. The supreme court controls judicial administration. Supreme Court judgements are binding on all other courts. The powers of the supreme court are:

Can hear disputes of:

Between citizens
Between citizens and government
Between states
Between Union and state governments

Social Science Class 9 Notes

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